Architecture
In a setting like Petra, where we have a limited amount
of physical evidence, we must be very rigorous in our analysis of the
remains. We will review some of the methodologies used in the
analysis of architecture at Petra. Also, rather than showcasing a
variety of architectural finds at the site, I'd like us to think about
how to use the physical remains in a meaningful way.
Part One: The Region
c. Original City Plan Reconstruction by Walter Bachman and Theodor Wiegand in 1916 on an Expedition des Deutsch-Turkischen Denkmalschutz-Kommandos, as stated in: Thomas Weber/Robert Wenning (Hrsg.) Petra: antike Felsstadt zwischen arabisher Tradition und griechischer Norm," Mainz am Rhein: von Zabern, 1997.) Analyze the city plan. How did they come to conclusions about the urban plan and buildings within it?
Part Two: How Does One
Analyze Architecture? Methodologies from Petra and other Nabataean Sites
If we review some of the analysis that's been done, we
can understand and define some of the key issues.
Problems to consider: What types of evidence do we have? Why are they important?
Physical Evidence:
Historical Evidence:
Part Three: Tomb Facade Chronology Methodologies
Petra is famous for the quantity and fineness of its tomb facades. Tomb facades are carved directly into the mountainous terrain and stand as backdrops in all areas of Petra from the main entryway or Siq, in the city center and adjoining public areas. One of the most popular problems that scholars have addressed since the beginning of investigations at Petra is the chronology of tomb facades.
a. Excercise 1: Chronology of
the Khaseh, from Table 2
(from Judith McKenzie, (1990) "The
Architecture of Petra," Oxford University Press, Oxford, 7.)
Table Two (partial)
Petra: The Chronology of the Khasneh
| Scholar | Date of Khasneh | Basis for Date |
| Brunow and von Domaszewski (1904) | Hadrianic | Roman. Hadrian visited Petra. |
| Dalman (1908) | 1st cent. A.D. | Style In "Hellenistic" category. |
| Wiegand (1921) | Augustan | Comparison of garlands. |
| Kennedy (1925) | after A.D. 106 | Roman Temple Tombs not at Medain Saleh. |
| Ashby (1927) | 2nd cent. A.D. | No reason given. |
| Rostovtzeff (1932) | late Hellenistic | Style. Similarity to second Pompeian style. |
| Ronczewski (1932) Schlumberger (1933) |
not after Augustus Hellenistic |
Comparison of capitals. |
| Watzinger (1935) | late Augustan | Capitals (Ronczewski 1932) Similarity to second and third Pompeian styles. |
| Robertson (1943) | after A.D. 106 | Roman Temple Tombs not at Medain Saleh.
"General baroque effect." Unlike Tomb of Hamrath, Suwaida. |
| Wright (1962) | mid-late 2nd cent. A.D. | Roman Temple Tombs at Medain Saleh. Similar to Temenos Gate - mid-late 2nd cent A.D. History Comparison of an iconographic details. |
| Wright (1973) | not before c. A.D. 100 | Comparison of an iconographic detail. |
| Bennett (1962) | 2nd cent. A.D. | no reason given |
| Parr(1967) | after c. A.D. 50 | After paving of Siq. |
| di Vita (1968) | end Hellenistic/Augustan | Capitals dissimilar to Temenos Gate. Plan, details similar to Alexandrian tombs. |
| Starcky (1966) | Augustan | Capitals (Ronczewski 1932) Similar to stucco decoration on side of Kasr el Bint. Similar to second Pompeian style. |
| Lauter (1971) | before 9 B.C. | Capitals similar to Temonos Gate - before 9 B.C. |
| Browning (1973) | Aretas III | Sequence. History. |
| Lyttelton (1974) | Aretas III | Comparisons - 1st cent. B.C. or early 1st
century A.D. History - Aretas III |
| Adreae (1977) | late Hellenistic | Capitals (Ronczewski 1932) Similar to Temenos Gate - 9 B.C. |
| Negev (1978) | c. 25 A.D. | History. Tomb of Aretas IV. |
| Hadidi (1980) | Hadrianic | Comparison |
| Schmidt-Colinet (1980) | Aretas III | Details similar to Kasr el Bint - 1st century B.C. |
| Zayadine (1980b) | towards end of 1st B.C. | Capitals similar to Kasr el Bint |
| Ward-Perkins (1981) | after A.D. 106 | Sequence. History. |
| Bowersock (1983) | Aretas IV | Kasr el Bint and Main Theatre - early 1st cent. A.D. Similarity to second Pompeian style. |
| MacDonald (1986) | after A.D. 106 | Classical influence stronger in Roman period there. |
Part Four: Strategies
How can we solve the tomb chronology problem?
Comparison - Using the method of comparison with dated evidence from outside of Petra (in Medain Saleh and Alexandria) and in other areas of the Mediterranean area like Pompeii. This method has failed to yield decisive results as is illustrated by the opposing conclusions reached by various scholars in past examinations. As Judith McKenzie comments, "often the fault lies in the interpretation of the general architectural effect of the facade," as opposed to stylistic details (such as column capitals used, etc.). example 1: Rostovtzeff considered: "The style of the building is so light and elegant, the ornamentation so graceful and yet so spirited, and its relationship with the second Pompeian style so marked, that I feel convinced that the temple was built by Greek artists some time during the late Hellinistic period." example2: McKenzie looked at tombs at Medain Saleh, a Nabataean city in what is now Saudi Arabia. Although she was not given access to the site, she was able to do a great deal of research from existing records of the tombs and inscriptions. Through analysis of the tomb inscriptions and stone cutter marks, she was able to do two things. First, she was able to give many absolute dates to tombs and then relate those tombs stylistically with those at Petra. And, second, she was able to attribute tomb styles to various schools of stone-cutters and relate those with tombs at Petra also. example 3: Comparison with the Architectural Remains from Alexandria, which often have absolute dates defined, and their stylistic chronology. Once the chronology of the architectural evidence from Alexandria has been established, the similarities between it and the architecture of Petra can be validly investigated. Sequence - The idea that there is a visual development in the style of tomb facade that can give clues about chronology. "The sequence of tomb facades which has been accepted almost universally, was suggested by von Domaszewski in 1904. He established a typology of the tombs, dividing them into seven main groups based on the number of classical elements present. He suggested that these groups formed a chronological and developmental sequence when placed in order of increasing complexity, which involved an increasing presence of classical elements. Furthermore, he concluded that this sequence was indicated by the topographical position of the tombs." (from McKenzie, p. 2) Epigraphy (Inscriptions) - McKenzie used considerable evidence linking the tombs at Medain Saleh stylistically with those at Petra and, given the absolute dates from the tomb inscriptions at Medain Saleh, disproved the chronology advanced by Brunnow and von Domaszewski. She observed within each tomb type, an increasing squatness in the shape of the facade and the simplification of details. Alexandria Tomb Chronology - the absolute date is dependent on the date given to the "hadra vases." (the inscriptions on the vases allow for absolute dating) The vases help to establish dates for tombs and within the tombs there are architectural details that can be compared with those at Medain Saleh and Petra. Other:
|
b. Example: Capital Analysis
The three orders Doric, Ionic and Corinthian, according
to Vitruvius...
c. Column Capital Examples from Petra
Temple Proper (Corinthian Type) Column Capital
Temple of the Winged Lions (Lion-Head Capital)
Alexandrian and Nabataean Column Capital Types (Defined by Judith McKenzie)
d. Example: Sculptural
Evidence
Head of Tyche, found at the Great Temple site,
Lower Temenos, 1995
Bust of Helios from Doric Frieze, 1962 Kasr
al-Bint
Conclusion: Brainstorm
What do historians and archaeologists need? Think about some of the analysis methods that I've shown.
How could we make it easier and more efficient for analysis to occur?
1. 3D Database of Images: for indexing, search and complex queries
2. Reconstruction Capabilities: in order to place objects into a
context for analysis.
Tomb Types:
Bab el Siq Arch (Triumphal Arch) terminus post
quem c. A.D. 50
Colonnaded Street terminus post quem A.D. 76 (or
9B.C.)
Temenos Gate terminus post quem A.D. 76
Kasr el Bint terminus ante quem beginning of
first century A.D.
Baths first century B.C.
Temple of the Winged Lions first quarter of first
century A.D. or earlier
Khasneh first century B.C.
Main Theatre first century A.D.
Urn Tomb c. first half of first century A.D.
Tomb of the Roman Soldier first half of first
century A.D.
Triclinium 235 (tomb of the Roman soldier) c.
first half of first century A.D.
Tomb 258 (al Najr Tomb) c. first half of first
century A.D.
Deir (Monastery)
Footnotes:
The Regional Plan, at a 1"=100km scale, the region can be seen as a series of cities centered around main trade routes (trade route diagrams). The Nabataean centers include Petra (the largest), Medain Saleh (approx. 450km southeast of Petra), Bosra (from page 9, Judith MacKenzie fn#97), Qasr Rabbah (fn.95. N. Glueck, " The Nabataean Temple of Qasr Rabbah," AJA 43, 1939, 381-387.) Ramm (R.Savignac - G. Horsfield, "Le temple de Ramm," RBibl44, 1935, 245-278; D. Kirkbride, "Le temple nabateen de Ramm," RBibl 67, 1960, 65-92.) Khirbet Tannur (J. McKenzie, "The Development of Sculpture at Petra and Khirbet Tannur," PEQ 1988 (in print)), Si (Butler op.cit. (n.97) 365-402; J. Dentzer, "A propos du temple dit de 'Dusares a Si'", Syria 56, 1979, 325-332; J.M. and J. Dentzer, "Les fouilles de Si et la phase hellenistique en Syrie du sud," CRAI 1981, 78-102; J.M. and J. Dentzer, "Premeiere campagne de fouilles a Si," AAS 32, 1982, 177-190; J.M. Dentzer, "Six campagnes de fouilles a Si": Developpement et culture indigene en Syrie meridionale," DaM 2, 1985, 65-83.).
A detailed bibliography of Negev sites is given in A. Negev,
Tempel, Kirchen und Zisternen, Ausgrabungen in der Wuste Negev,
Stuttgart (1983) 250-254. A shorter bibliography is given in A.Negev,
Navataean Archaeology Today, New York (1986) 143-148. More recently: A.
Negev, The Architecture of Mampsis, Vol. I, II, Qedem 26-27, 1988,
XV-XVIII; Y. Tsafrir et. al., Excavations at Rehovotin-the-Negev, Vol.
I, Qedem 25, 1988, XIX-XXVIII.)
City Plan
Orientalist R.E. Brunnow and the classicist, A. von
Domaszewski (survey from 1897-1898, published an ambitious three-volume
mapping project in their Die Provincia Arabia 1904-1909.
